What is a Prandtl tube and how does it work?
A Prandtl tube is used to measure the dynamic pressure. From this, the flow speed relative to the tube can be determined.
Stagnation pressure and stagnation point
If a flow hits a plate...
Siphon
In this article, learn more about what a siphon is and how it works in practice.
Introduction
If, for example, you want to empty a pool by a garden hose, you only have...
Flow separation (boundary layer separation)
In the case of a boundary layer separation (flow separation), the flow can no longer follow the profile of the body around which it flows and separates turbulently from it.
Introduction
When a...
Lewis number
The Lewis number is a dimensionless similarity parameter to describe heat and mass transport.
The Lewis number always comes into play when a flowing fluid is transferring both heat by conduction and...
Moody chart (diagram)
The Moody diagram is a chart showing the Darcy friction factor of a pipe as a function of the Reynolds number for selected roughnesses of the pipe wall.
Pressure loss
In the article...
Derivation of the barometric formula (isothermal atmosphere)
The barometric formula describes the decrease of air pressure with increasing altitude.
Introduction
At sea level the atmospheric pressure is about 1 bar. However, practice shows that the air pressure decreases more and...
Prandtl number
The Prandtl number is a dimensionless similarity parameter to describe the transport of heat and momentum.
Definition
In the article on the different boundary layers, the importance of these boundary layers with respect...
Viscosity of liquids and gases
The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of the internal resistance to flow! It is caused by intermolecular forces and transport of momentum within the fluid.
Introduction
If one looks at the...
Discharge of liquids (Torricelli’s law)
Torricelli's law (Torricelli's theorem) states that the discharge velocity of a liquid equals a free fall of the liquid from the liquid surface to the opening of the tank.
Outflow speed (discharge...
Derivation of the Euler equation of motion (conservation of momentum)
The Euler equation of motion describes inviscid, unsteady flows of compressible or incompressible fluids.
Pressure forces on a fluid element
The Euler equation is based on Newton's second law, which relates the...
Derivation of the barometric formula (adiabatic atmosphere)
The barometric formula for an adiabatic atmosphere takes into account the decrease in temperature with increasing altitude and the associated effects on air pressure.
Barometric formula for an isothermal atmosphere
In the article...
Examples and applications of the Venturi effect
Learn more about examples and technical applications of the Venturi effect in this article.
Venturi effect
The Venturi effect (Bernoulli effect) refers to the decrease in pressure in flowing gases or liquids with...
Pressure in gases
The pressure of gases is caused on a microscopic level by collisions of the gas molecules with its container walls!
Introduction
Pressure p in the physcal sense is determined as the quotient of...
Nusselt number to describe convective heat transfer
The Nusselt number is a dimensionless similarity parameter to describe convective heat transfer, independent of the size of the system.
Introduction
Convective heat transfer describes the heat transport between a solid surface and...
Schmidt number
The Schmidt-number is a dimensionless similarity parameter to describe transport of mass and momentum.
Not only the transport of momentum and the heat transfer influence each other as already explained in detail...
Flow around spherical bodies (Stokes’ law of friction)
Stokes' law of friction describes the drag force acting on a spherical body around which a laminar flow passes.
Flow resistance and drag coefficient
When a fluid (liquid or gas) flows around a...
Experimental determination of viscosity (viscometer)
Viscometry is the experimental determination of the viscosity of liquids and gases with so-called viscometers.
Definition of viscosity (Newton's law of fluid friction)
Viscosity describes the internal resistance to flow of a fluid...
Viscosity of an ideal gas
The viscosity of ideal gases is mainly based on the momentum transfer due to diffusion between the fluid layers.
Definition of viscosity
In the article Viscosity, the cause of viscosity was mainly attributed...
Dimensionless numbers of the boundary layers (Prandtl, Schmidt and Lewis number)
To describe the heat and mass transport, dimensionless numbers are introduced to describe the processes within the boundary layers.
Between a flowing fluid and a solid surface, different boundary layers are formed,...
Hydrodynamic boundary layer
The hydrodynamic boundary layer of a flow has a decisive influence on heat and mass transport.
Introduction
In this article we take a closer look at the boundary layers between a solid surface...
Exercises with solutions based on the Bernoulli equation
In this article exercises with solutions based on the Bernoulli equation are given.
Bernoulli equation
The Bernoulli equation is based on the conservation of energy of flowing fluids. The derivation of this equation...
Pressure loss in pipe systems (Darcy friction factor)
Pressure losses in pipes are caused by internal friction of the fluid (viscosity) and friction between fluid and wall. Pressure losses also occur in components.
Introduction
When fluids flow through pipes, energy losses...
Reynolds number (laminar and turbulent flow)
The Reynolds number is a dimensionless similarity parameter for describing a forced flow, e.g. whether it is an alminar or turbulent flow.
Laminar and turbulent flow
The definition of viscosity implies that the...
Drag coefficient (friction and pressure drag)
Drag coefficients are dimensionless similarity parameters for describing the drag of flowed around bodies.
Parasitic drag (skin friction drag und pressure drag)
When a body moves through a fluid or a fluid flows...
Thermal and concentration boundary layer
In addition to the hydrodynamic boundary layer, the thermal boundary layer and the concentration boundary layer also have a decisive influence on the entire heat and mass transport in a flow.
Temperature...
What ist the Magnus effect?
The Magnus effect refers to the lateral force acting on rotating round bodies in a flow!
Introduction
Anyone who has ever played football has most likely already had to deal with the Magnus...
Energetic analysis of the Hagen-Poiseuille law
The Hagen-Poiseuille equation for describing the parabolic velocity profile of fluids in pipes applies only to long pipes for energy reasons!
Summary
As derived in detail in the article on the Hagen-Poiseuille equation,...
Venturi effect
The Venturi effect describes the decrease of (static) pressure in flowing fluids with increasing flow velocity due to a constricted section.
Pressure as volume specific energy
Pressure is usually measured in the unit...
Calculation of the Nusselt numbers for forced flows over plates and in pipes
In this article you will find formulas for calculating the local and average Nusselt numbers for forced flows over plates and in pipes with circular cross sections.
Nusselt number
The definition and importance...
How do boats float: Buoyancy in liquids
Buoyancy is the force directed against gravity that an object experiences when submerged in a fluid (liquid or gas).
Indroduction
Everyone may have tried to lift another person and found that this requires...
Derivation of the Bernoulli equation
The Bernoulli equation describes the relationship between static, dynamic and hydrostatic pressure for inviscid and incompressible fluids.
Static, dynamic and hydrostatic pressure
Due to the pressure acting in resting fluids, a force is...
Pressure in liquids (hydrostatic pressure)
The pressure at a certain depth of a liquid, which is caused by the weight of the liquid column above it, is referred to as hydrostatic pressure!
Introduction
In the same way as...
Applications and examples of hydrostatic pressure
Learn more about applications and examples related to hydrostatic pressure in this article.
Hydrostatic pressure
In the article Pressure in liquids, the formation of hydrostatic pressure and its calculation was explained in detail....
Parasitic drag (skin friction drag & form/pressure drag)
Drag is the force of resistance that a moving body experiences in a fluid due to frictional and pressure forces.
Introduction
In the article on boundary layers, it was explained, using the example...
How does a drinking straw work?
Sucking creates a vacuum in the drinking straw, so that the greater ambient pressure pushes the beverage through the drinking straw.
Indroduction
Drinking out of a straw sounds quite simple at first. One...
Why does water boil faster at high altitudes?
Due to the lower pressure, the boiling point of water decreases and the water boils earlier at high altitudes.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-nf8w-SeFDM
Cooking on Mount Everest
With increasing altitude above sea level, the air pressure decreases...
How does a hydraulic jack work: Pascals law
A hydraulic jack is based on Pascal's law, which states that the pressure in liquids acts equally in all directions.
Pascal's law
In the article Pressure it has already been explained that pressure...
How does a centrifugal pump work?
Centrifugal pumps have a wide range of applications where the pressure increase is caused by centrifugal forces.
Radial, axial and mixed flow pumps
Centrifugal pumps are turbomachines that pump liquids by means of...
Derivation of the continuity equation (conservation of mass)
In fluid mechanics, the equation for balancing mass flows and the associated change in density (conservation of mass) is called the continuity equation.
Continuity equation for one-dimensional flows
Experience shows that mass can...
Heat transfer coefficient for thermal convection
The heat transfer coefficient describes the convective heat transfer from a solid to a flowing fluid and vice versa!
Introduction
The heat transfer coefficient describes the convective heat transfer from a solid to...
Derivation of Hagen-Poiseuille equation for pipe flows with friction
The Hagen-Poiseuille equation describes the parabolic velocity profile of frictional, laminar pipe flows of incompressible, Newtonian fluids.
Drive and resistance for flows
The flow of fluids through pipes is of great importance in...
Equation of motion of a fluid on a streamline
In this article we derive the equation of motion of a fluid element on a streamline and one perpendicular to it.
Introduction
In the following we want to derive the equation of motion...
Pressure head and head loss
Learn more about the difference between elevation head, pressure head, friction head (head loss) and total static head of a piping system in this article.
Static head of a pump
Pumps are used...
How does a hot air balloon work: Buoyancy in gases
Buoyant forces act not only in liquids but also in gases. This will be illustrated in the following by the example of a hot air balloon.
Buoyancy
In the article Buoyancy, the physical...